What is a Social Fact?

Emile Durkheim's The Rules of Sociological Method (Sumber Gambar: https://biblio.ie/book/rules-sociological-method-durkheim-emile/d/1406567133)

By: Syamsul Kurniawan

Emile Durkheim's The Rules of Sociological Method, first published in 1895 and later translated into English by the New York Free Press in 1982, stands as one of the foundational texts in the field of sociology. In this book, Durkheim delves into the very essence of sociology by dissecting its methodology and establishing the concept of “social facts.” His approach to defining and analyzing these facts not only marked a significant break from the philosophical and psychological explanations of human behavior but also set the stage for sociology to be recognized as a distinct and rigorous scientific discipline.

Durkheim begins with the question: What is a social fact? This fundamental query serves as the backbone of the entire book. According to Durkheim, social facts are ways of behaving, thinking, or feeling that are external to the individual, endowed with a power of coercion, and arise from the collective consciousness of society. These social facts shape and constrain individual actions, making them distinct from the mere psychological or biological phenomena studied by other sciences. For Durkheim, sociology must not be confused with biology, psychology, or philosophy; it is a science in its own right, dedicated to understanding the ways in which societies function and how individuals are influenced by the social structures surrounding them.

The book opens with an assertion that the scientific method should be applied to sociology in the same way it is used in the natural sciences. Durkheim criticizes the tendency in sociology to treat human behavior as an isolated, psychological phenomenon or to reduce it to biological imperatives. He argues that sociology must identify its own domain of study and methodology, which lies in examining the social structures and collective norms that govern individual behavior. The sociologist, then, is tasked with studying not the individual per se, but the social forces that influence him or her.

One of the key arguments Durkheim makes is that social facts are external to the individual. This externality is not just a matter of physical existence but also refers to the constraints imposed by society on the individual’s actions, thoughts, and feelings. These facts—whether they be legal regulations, religious beliefs, or moral codes—exist independently of the individual and have a coercive power over him. Durkheim uses the example of law to illustrate his point. Laws exist outside of any one individual and govern behavior in a way that forces people to conform, even if they may not personally believe in or agree with them. This coercive power of social facts is what gives them their distinctive character.

Durkheim further elaborates that these social facts are not reducible to psychological or physiological phenomena. While psychology might explain the internal mental processes of an individual, sociology deals with external phenomena that arise from the collective life of society. Social facts, therefore, are not subjective experiences, but objective realities that exist in the form of institutions, customs, and social practices. The laws of society, for instance, are not simply a reflection of individual desires or actions; they are external structures that individuals are born into and must navigate throughout their lives.

Moreover, Durkheim stresses that social facts are not static; they evolve and change over time as societies grow and develop. However, unlike individual actions, these facts are not easily altered by individual will or choice. They exist independently of the individual and have a persistence that is resistant to change. For instance, a person may choose to break a law, but the law itself remains a social fact with an authority and coercive power that will impose sanctions upon the individual. This illustrates Durkheim’s point that social facts must be studied in terms of their objective existence and not their subjective interpretation.

The book also highlights the distinction between sociology and other disciplines in its approach to studying social facts. Durkheim acknowledges that other sciences, such as biology and psychology, may touch on human behavior, but sociology is concerned with how collective norms and social structures shape individual actions. The sociologist, unlike the psychologist or the biologist, does not study the individual in isolation but seeks to understand how individuals are shaped by larger social forces. The concept of social facts, therefore, serves as the methodological foundation for sociology’s unique approach to studying society.

Durkheim’s approach to social facts requires the researcher to adopt an objective stance. The sociologist must clear his or her mind of any preconceived notions or biases before embarking on the study of social facts. This is not an easy task, as individuals are often deeply influenced by their own political, religious, or personal beliefs. However, Durkheim argues that for sociology to be a legitimate science, it must rely on empirical observation and analysis, free from the distortion of personal ideologies.

This objectivity is crucial because, for Durkheim, science is about discovering the truth of social phenomena, not merely reinforcing pre-existing ideas or hypotheses. He criticizes researchers who approach their work with an ideological agenda or preconceived conclusions. Sociology, like any other science, must follow a rigorous method that begins with observation and moves toward generalization based on empirical evidence. Social facts, as Durkheim suggests, must be treated as objective data that can be studied and analyzed scientifically, rather than as subjective impressions that are colored by the researcher’s personal biases.

Durkheim also emphasizes the importance of classification in sociological research. He suggests that researchers should begin by identifying and classifying social facts in order to better understand the specific ways in which these facts operate within society. By categorizing different types of social facts—such as laws, morals, or economic practices—sociologists can begin to trace patterns and identify underlying social forces. This classification is essential for building a comprehensive understanding of society and its mechanisms.

The concept of social facts also leads Durkheim to develop his ideas about the nature of social order. He argues that social facts are not just external constraints on the individual but also serve to maintain social order. They regulate behavior and create cohesion within society by ensuring that individuals conform to societal norms and expectations. Without these external constraints, Durkheim suggests, society would descend into chaos. Social facts, therefore, play a vital role in preserving the stability of the social fabric.

In his discussion of social facts, Durkheim also touches on the idea of "moral realism." He contends that social facts are not merely abstract concepts but have a real, tangible existence that shapes the lives of individuals. These facts are part of the very structure of society and are experienced by individuals in their everyday lives. The moral rules and norms of society are not simply ideas; they are real forces that influence individual behavior and contribute to the functioning of society as a whole.

One of the key implications of Durkheim’s theory of social facts is that it challenges the traditional view of the individual as the primary unit of analysis in social theory. Instead of focusing on the individual and his or her internal consciousness, Durkheim argues that the sociologist must turn to the collective consciousness of society. This shift in focus from the individual to the collective marks a significant departure from earlier theories in which the individual was seen as the primary driver of social change and behavior.

Durkheim’s book also underscores the importance of empirical research in sociology. He argues that sociologists must rely on observable facts and data rather than speculative theories or philosophical reasoning. The study of social facts requires the sociologist to observe patterns of behavior and social practices in the real world and to analyze these patterns scientifically. This empirical approach is what distinguishes sociology from other disciplines and gives it its scientific rigor.

In addition to his discussion of methodology, Durkheim addresses the importance of understanding social facts in their historical context. He emphasizes that social facts must not be studied in isolation but must be understood as part of the broader historical and cultural context in which they arise. Social facts evolve over time, and the sociologist must take into account the historical processes that shape these facts.

Durkheim also critiques the tendency of sociologists to focus on individual actions and psychological explanations, arguing that these approaches fail to account for the larger social structures that shape human behavior. Sociology, for Durkheim, must move beyond the individual level and seek to understand the forces that bind society together. Social facts are the key to understanding these forces, and the sociologist must examine them in their full complexity.

In conclusion, The Rules of Sociological Method is a seminal work that provides a detailed and rigorous framework for understanding the methodology of sociology. Durkheim’s concept of social facts remains a cornerstone of sociological theory, and his insistence on the scientific study of social phenomena has had a lasting impact on the discipline. Through his work, Durkheim established sociology as a distinct and objective science, separate from philosophy and psychology, and laid the groundwork for future sociological research. By focusing on the objective reality of social facts, Durkheim’s method provides a systematic approach for analyzing the social world and understanding the forces that shape human behavior.

In the end, Durkheim’s The Rules of Sociological Method remains a crucial text for anyone interested in the study of society. It offers valuable insights into the nature of social facts and provides a clear blueprint for conducting sociological research. By grounding sociology in empirical observation and rigorous methodology, Durkheim ensured that it would continue to evolve as a scientific discipline capable of addressing the complex questions of social life.