Social Stratification in Bourdieu's Perspective

Ilustrasi (Sumber: https://www.college-de-france.fr/en/news/annual-abstracts-of-pierre-bourdieu-lectures-and-seminars)

By: Syamsul Kurniawan

In the field of social research, one of the primary responsibilities of the researcher is to fully grasp the research context, including the social structure of the community under study. A researcher must not only master research methodologies but also understand the community's internal dynamics, including its social stratification. This paper, therefore, aims to provide a deeper understanding of social stratification and emphasizes essential elements that researchers must consider. Specifically, this analysis will draw upon the theoretical framework of Pierre Bourdieu to explore how social stratification operates in society.

Social stratification, in its essence, is an inescapable feature of human societies. As social beings, individuals are constantly positioned within various social hierarchies based on their access to resources, power, or cultural capital. These stratifications often play a critical role in shaping individuals' experiences, opportunities, and social mobility. The impact of stratification extends far beyond economic measures, deeply influencing cultural, religious, and political life. Bourdieu's work provides an insightful lens for understanding the invisible mechanisms through which social inequalities are perpetuated.

In his theory, Bourdieu moves beyond traditional Marxist and Weberian frameworks, introducing more nuanced concepts such as capital and habitus, which allow for a deeper understanding of how power and privilege operate within a society. He asserts that the structure of society is not solely determined by wealth or material possession but by the accumulation and distribution of various forms of capital. Social stratification, from this perspective, becomes an interplay of economic, cultural, social, and symbolic capital.

Robert M. Z. Lawang, in his study, discusses social stratification as a system that classifies individuals into hierarchical layers, primarily based on power, prestige, and privilege. This classification often leads to the reproduction of inequality, as those in higher strata possess more resources and opportunities to maintain their position. Similarly, Pitirim A. Sorokin defines social stratification as the classification of society into different layers or classes based on hierarchy. He further emphasizes the idea that these layers influence the distribution of resources, social recognition, and power within society.

Bourdieu, however, introduces a more complex understanding of stratification. For him, social stratification is not merely a function of wealth or class position but involves capital in its various forms. These forms of capital—economic, cultural, social, and symbolic—are interrelated and affect how individuals interact with one another and their environment. Bourdieu’s theory brings to light the subtle yet powerful mechanisms by which social structures maintain inequality over time.

Economic capital, the most obvious form of capital, is concerned with financial wealth and material resources. Wealth provides individuals with access to better education, healthcare, and social opportunities. However, Bourdieu also points out that cultural capital—such as knowledge, education, language, and tastes—plays a critical role in determining one's position within the social hierarchy. Cultural capital is often inherited, and its accumulation over time gives individuals an edge in social mobility.

Cultural capital is also closely tied to social capital, which refers to the networks, relationships, and social ties that individuals cultivate over their lifetimes. Those with extensive social networks often find it easier to access opportunities and resources. Social capital can thus function as a powerful tool for individuals to reinforce their position within the social strata or to climb higher. Furthermore, social capital is often invisible, making it even more difficult for those without such networks to advance.

Symbolic capital, another of Bourdieu’s key concepts, refers to the prestige, honor, and recognition that individuals gain through their status or achievements. Unlike the other forms of capital, symbolic capital is intangible and often linked to societal values and cultural norms. It can be derived from reputation, education, or even family name. Symbolic capital plays a crucial role in the maintenance of social hierarchies, as individuals who hold high symbolic capital are often able to legitimize their dominance over others.

Bourdieu’s concept of habitus further enriches his theory of social stratification. Habitus refers to the ingrained habits, dispositions, and ways of thinking that individuals acquire through their socialization within a particular social class. These deeply embedded tendencies shape how people perceive the world, their behavior, and their decisions. Habitus is not fixed; rather, it evolves over time, influenced by the capital individuals acquire and the social environments they inhabit.

This interplay between capital and habitus means that individuals’ actions and attitudes are not purely a result of rational decision-making but are shaped by unconscious factors rooted in their social context. Those in higher strata tend to have a habitus that aligns with the dominant cultural norms, making it easier for them to navigate and perpetuate their privileged position. In contrast, those in lower strata often find themselves constrained by a habitus that limits their ability to break free from the cycle of disadvantage.

Social stratification, according to Bourdieu, is also reinforced through social institutions—such as schools, the media, and legal systems—that perpetuate the distribution of capital and, by extension, the maintenance of hierarchical structures. For instance, the educational system plays a pivotal role in social stratification by reproducing inequalities in cultural capital. Students from wealthier families often have access to better educational resources, thus increasing their chances of academic and social success. Conversely, those without access to such resources are left behind.

The media, too, acts as a conduit for reinforcing existing social hierarchies. Through representation, it shapes perceptions of what is valued in society, often elevating individuals with symbolic capital while marginalizing those without. The legal system can also play a role in sustaining social stratification by providing privileges to certain groups based on their social standing or wealth, thus reinforcing inequality in a legal and institutionalized form.

At its core, Bourdieu’s theory argues that social stratification is not simply about the ownership of wealth or power but about the ability to control and distribute various forms of capital. The accumulation of capital—whether economic, cultural, or social—gives individuals greater opportunities to advance within the social hierarchy. However, access to these forms of capital is not equally distributed. Those at the top possess the resources to continue their dominance, while those at the bottom struggle to accumulate the capital necessary for upward mobility.

Understanding social stratification through Bourdieu’s lens provides valuable insights into how inequality is perpetuated. It highlights that social stratification is not a mere reflection of one’s financial situation but is deeply tied to broader cultural, educational, and social dynamics. These inequalities are not always visible or easily measured but are ingrained in the very fabric of society.

Furthermore, Bourdieu’s theory offers a critique of the meritocratic ideals that are often promoted in modern societies. While meritocracies claim that individuals can rise based on their abilities and achievements, Bourdieu argues that success is more often determined by the amount and type of capital one possesses. In a truly meritocratic society, access to various forms of capital would be equally available to all individuals, regardless of their background or social class.

The educational system, for instance, serves as a prime example of how social stratification operates under the guise of meritocracy. While schools claim to provide equal opportunities for all students, in practice, those from wealthier families tend to have advantages in terms of educational resources and social networks. This unequal access to cultural capital often leads to unequal outcomes, perpetuating social stratification across generations.

In light of these insights, Bourdieu’s work encourages a more critical examination of social structures and the forces that maintain inequality. It challenges us to question the assumptions of meritocracy and to recognize that social mobility is not solely dependent on individual effort but is deeply influenced by one’s position within the social hierarchy. Social stratification is thus a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that cannot be understood simply through economic terms.

The implications of Bourdieu’s theory are profound for both sociological research and social policy. Researchers must recognize the interplay between different forms of capital and the role of habitus in shaping individuals' opportunities and behaviors. Policymakers, in turn, must work toward creating systems that address these inequalities by providing more equal access to various forms of capital—be it through education, economic reform, or social services.

In conclusion, Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of social stratification offers a sophisticated framework for understanding the persistence of inequality in society. By highlighting the importance of economic, cultural, social, and symbolic capital, as well as the role of habitus, Bourdieu provides a nuanced explanation of how social hierarchies are maintained and reproduced. His work challenges the simplistic notion of meritocracy and calls for a deeper examination of the hidden forces that shape social mobility and power dynamics in contemporary society.***